A low-carbon economy will require doubling the global production of copper and zinc, while the production of lithium and certain rare earth metals will need to grow by 600% (Inter-American Development Bank, 2022).
How these minerals are mined can have substantial environmental, social, and human rights implications, including the rise in conflict, forced displacement and migration. This is especially critical in developing nations with weak mining governance systems – such as inadequate regulations, lack of enforcement and limited citizen participation in decision-making.
© 2026 Environmental Governance Programme (EGP)
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